An update on the socio-economic gaps between Indigenous Peoples and the non-Indigenous population in Canada: Highlights from the 2021 Census

A note on terminology

At the outset, we wish to acknowledge that some terms in this document may be offensive and problematic for certain individuals who will read this report. While the language that is used in Canada to describe and speak about Indigenous Peoples is evolving to be more respectful and reflective of how Indigenous Peoples and communities themselves choose to be identified, some pieces of legislation continue to use outdated and colonial terminology.

For example, Canada's Constitution Act, 1982 recognizes three distinct "aboriginal peoples of Canada", namely, "Indian, Inuit and Métis". The Government of Canada now uses the terms "Indigenous" and "First Nations". However, "Aboriginal" and "Indian" remain the legal terms that continue to be used in certain circumstances.

Also, as the Indian Act (PDF), a very outdated and colonial piece of legislation, continues to be in effect, terms such as "registered Indian" (also referred to as "status Indian") remain in use. As these remain accepted legal terms, for the purposes of this report, which requires reference to the Indian Act and its provisions and requires precision in terminology for statistical purposes, the legal terms will be used.

Indigenous Peoples is a collective name for the original peoples of North America and their descendants. More than 1.8 million people in Canada (5.0% of the population of Canada) self-identified as an Indigenous person on Canada's 2021 Census of Population. Indigenous Peoples are the fastest growing population in Canada. Between 2016 and 2021, the Indigenous population grew by 8.0%, while the non-Indigenous population grew by 5.4%. The Indigenous population is also the youngest in Canada: in 2021, 41.2% of Indigenous people were under the age of 25, compared to 27.3% of the non-Indigenous population.

Figure 1 shows the distribution of Indigenous populations across Canada. The figure includes the number of Indigenous individuals living in each province and territory, as well as the proportion of Indigenous Peoples in its overall population. Indigenous Peoples make up the largest proportion of the population in Nunavut (85.8%), the Northwest Territories (49.6%) and the Yukon Territory (22.3%), followed by Manitoba (18.1%) and Saskatchewan (17.0%).

The associated table indicates which proportion of the overall Indigenous population resides in each province and territory. Although Indigenous people comprise only 2.9% of Ontario's population, the province is home to the largest population of Indigenous people, with 406,585 individuals or 22.5% of the Indigenous population in Canada, followed by 16.1 and 15.7% in British Columbia and Alberta, respectively.

The Canadian Constitution recognizes three groups of Indigenous Peoples: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. These are three distinct peoples with unique histories, languages, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs. Figure 2 shows how the composition of Indigenous populations varies across the provinces and territories. This figure also includes "Other Indigenous" which is comprised of those with multiple Indigenous identities and those who identify as a band member only.

Text alternative for Figure 1: Distribution and number of Indigenous people in Canada by province and territory, 2021

Figure 1: Distribution and number of Indigenous people in Canada by province and territory, 2021

	Population size	Percentage of Region Population	Percentage of Indigenous Population
Newfoundland and Labrador	46,545	9.3%	2.6%
Prince Edward Island	3,385	2.2%	0.2%
Nova Scotia	52,430	5.5%	2.9%
New Brunswick	33,300	4.4%	1.8%
Quebec	205,010	2.5%	11.3%
Ontario	406,585	2.9%	22.5%
Manitoba	237,190	18.1%	13.1%
Saskatchewan	187,890	17.0%	10.4%
Alberta	284,470	6.8%	15.7%
British Columbia	290,210	5.9%	16.1%
Yukon	8,810	22.3%	0.5%
Northwest Territories	20,035	49.6%	1.1%
Nunavut	31,390	85.8%	1.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Text alternative for Figure 2: Composition of the Indigenous population in Canada by province and territory, 2021

Figure 2: Composition of the Indigenous population in Canada by province and territory, 2021

	Registered Indian	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Other Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	48.8%	20.1%	15.5%	13.8%	1.8%
Prince Edward Island	43.3%	27.5%	5.3%	22.9%	1.2%
Nova Scotia	35.2%	23.1%	2.1%	37.9%	1.8%
New Brunswick	45.9%	22.2%	2.0%	28.3%	1.6%
Quebec	37.4%	26.7%	7.6%	26.9%	1.4%
Ontario	42.4%	24.5%	1.0%	30.4%	1.7%
Manitoba	53.6%	5.7%	0.3%	39.5%	0.9%
Saskatchewan	61.2%	5.5%	0.2%	32.4%	0.7%
Alberta	44.5%	10.8%	1.0%	42.3%	1.4%
British Columbia	47.2%	18.9%	0.6%	31.5%	1.9%
Yukon	69.7%	12.5%	2.8%	13.3%	1.7%
Northwest Territories	62.6%	3.7%	20.2%	12.5%	1.0%
Nunavut	0.4%	0.4%	98.3%	0.4%	0.6%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: "Other Indigenous" comprises those with multiple Indigenous identities and those who identify as a band member only.

Composition of the Indigenous population in Canada, 2021

Measuring the socio-economic gaps

The analysis

To the extent possible, this analysis is distinctions-based. Data are presented for the three main distinctions groups: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. First Nations data are further disaggregated, given the significant differences in socio-economic outcomes that are known to exist among the following groups: Registered Indians living on reserve, Registered Indians living off reserve and Non-Status Indians. Where possible, data for the past 20 years have been included to illustrate how socio-economic gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations have evolved.

Regional analyses are also provided. Notably, some very small populations of First Nations and Métis in the territories are also the populations experiencing the largest gaps relative to the non-Indigenous population. Because statistics based on very small populations are less reliable and can create a skewed image of overall trends, one option would be to exclude them from broader analyses and/or discuss them separately. In the interest of transparency, however, it was decided to retain these small populations as part of the general analysis. Readers are encouraged to interpret statistics for small populations with caution, especially when data are further broken down by gender, age or other variables.

For the first time in census history, 2021 marks the shift to reporting on gender rather than biological sex. A new question on gender was included in the 2021 Census to reflect a growing social and legislative recognition of transgender and non-binary people. Gender identity refers to a person's internal and individual experience with gender. It may not be visible to others and it may not align with socially constructed gender norms. A person may refer to their gender identity in a multitude of ways including Woman, Man, Non-binary, Two-Spirit, Pangender, Agender, Gender Queer, Gender Fluid, Transgender or Cisgender.

The 2021 Census is the first census to provide data on transgender people and non-binary people. Census 2021 allowed individuals to write in responses other than male or female for the gender question. All these responses were condensed into a single non-binary gender for reporting purposes. Even with this amalgamation, the number of non-binary people is still quite small. Given this, Statistics Canada further aggregates data into a two-category gender variable when necessary to protect the confidentiality of responses provided. In these cases, individuals in the category "non-binary persons" are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "＋" symbol. "Men＋" includes men (and/or boys), as well as half of non-binary persons. "Women＋" includes women (and/or girls), as well as half of non-binary persons. Detailed analyses by gender are provided where feasible.

Income – Median individual income

Median income is a well-established measure of material well-being. Although it does not capture an individual's assets, median income is one way of estimating a person's wealth. Median individual income refers to a person's total income before tax from all sources including market income (such as employment wages) and government transfers (such as Old Age Security pension and other government benefit programs). In the census, income information is provide through tax records from the previous calendar year. For example, for data collected in the 2021 Census, income from January 1, 2020 to December 31, 2020 is reported. Similarly, for Census 2016, income data is based on 2015.

Median individual income includes government benefits, which is of particular importance for 2020. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of new government benefits were offered such as the Canada Emergency Response Benefit (CERB). Statistics Canada has analyzed these most recent census data and concluded that "the decrease [in poverty rates] was mostly driven by increased government transfers and temporary pandemic-related benefits."

For a full list of all data tables relevant to median income, please see Appendix A, tables A1.1 to A1.6.

Text alternative for Figure 3: Median individual income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 3: Median individual income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
$32,000	$42,000	$43,200	$42,800	$48,800	$50,400

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Median individual income for individuals aged 25 to 64 was lower for all Indigenous groups compared to the non-Indigenous population ($50,400).
• Registered Indians living on reserve had the largest gap in median individual income ($32,000) with relative to the non-Indigenous population, at $18,400.
• The gaps in median individual income for Registered Indians living off reserve ($8,400), Inuit ($7,600) and Non-Status Indians ($7,200) relative to the non-Indigenous population were similar in size.
• For Métis, median individual income varied little relative to the non-Indigenous population with a gap of only $1,600.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A1.1.

Text alternative for Figure 4: Median individual income 2005 to 2020 (adjusted), Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 4: Median individual income 2005 to 2020 (adjusted), Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2005	$17,700	$27,700	$30,800	$31,000	$35,200	$41,800
2010	$18,200	$32,300	$34,700	$34,200	$40,300	$44,400
2015	$22,100	$35,400	$37,400	$36,000	$44,300	$46,600
2020	$32,000	$42,000	$43,200	$42,800	$48,800	$50,400

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2006 to 2021 Census of Population.

Note: The dollar values have been adjusted for inflation and are stated in terms of their value in 2020.

• In the last 15 years, there has been a notable closing of the gap in median individual income between each of the Indigenous groups and the non-Indigenous population.
• The most striking reduction in the income gap occurred among Registered Indians living on reserve, improving from the largest gap of $26,200 in 2010 to $18,400 in 2020, which represents a reduction of $7,770.
• Registered Indians off reserve had the largest change in dollars, with median individual income increasing from $27,700 in 2005 to $42,000 in 2020, an increase of $14,300.
• The median income gap narrowed to a lesser extent for Non-Status Indians, from $11,000 in 2005 to $7,200 in 2020; for Inuit, from $10,800 to $7,600; and for Métis, from $6,600 to $1,600.
• This narrowing of gaps is likely due in part to the increased government transfers in 2020 as a result of supports made available during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results from the 2026 Census will be essential to assess if these improvements are sustainable long term.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A1.2.

Text alternative for Figure 5: Median individual income, 2020, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 5: Median individual income, 2020, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	$44,800	$42,800	$43,200	$46,000
Prince Edward Island	$38,400	$41,200	$34,800	$45,600
Nova Scotia	$32,400	$43,600	$39,600	$45,600
New Brunswick	$35,600	$40,400	$36,800	$45,200
Quebec	$44,800	$46,800	$45,200	$50,000
Ontario	$32,400	$44,000	$42,400	$50,400
Manitoba	$28,000	$36,400	$40,000	$48,800
Saskatchewan	$27,000	$39,200	$41,200	$53,600
Alberta	$31,200	$42,400	$45,900	$54,400
British Columbia	$32,400	$42,400	$44,000	$50,000
Yukon		$50,800	$62,000	$68,500
Northwest Territories	$39,200	$47,600	$69,000	$89,000
Nunavut		$100,000	$92,000	$116,000

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The national picture of the gap in median income between First Nations and the non-Indigenous population masks important regional differences.
• Registered Indians living on reserve in Newfoundland and Labrador, for example, had a median income that was almost equal to that of the non-Indigenous population, while those in Saskatchewan had a median income that was only half of the median income of Saskatchewan's non-Indigenous population, a difference of approximately $26,600 annually.
• For Registered Indians living off reserve, the smallest gap in median individual income was found in Nova Scotia ($2,000) and the largest in the Northwest Territories ($41,400).
• Among Non-Status Indians, Newfoundland and Labrador had the smallest gap at $2,800 compared to the largest in Nunavut ($24,000) followed by the Northwest Territories ($20,000).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A1.3.

Text alternative for Figure 6: Median individual income, 2020, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 6: Median individual income, 2020, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	$48,400	$46,000
Prince Edward Island	$51,600	$45,600
Nova Scotia	$44,000	$45,600
New Brunswick	$40,400	$45,200
Quebec	$47,600	$50,000
Ontario	$49,200	$50,400
Manitoba	$47,600	$48,800
Saskatchewan	$49,200	$53,600
Alberta	$50,800	$54,400
British Columbia	$48,400	$50,000
Yukon	$61,600	$68,500
Northwest Territories	$79,000	$89,000
Nunavut	$125,000	$116,000

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Regional differences were less pronounced among Métis than First Nations, as their median individual incomes were much closer to and, in some areas, above those of their non-Indigenous counterparts.
• Of note, the Métis populations in Nunavut (110 people) and Prince Edward Island (770 people) were small, and the high incomes observed in these areas are more likely a result of the effects of the small population size, not a reflection of robust area differences.
• The largest gap in median individual income ($10,000) between Métis and the non-Indigenous population was found in the Northwest Territories.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A1.4.

Text alternative for Figure 7: Median individual income, 2020, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Figure 7: Median individual income, 2020, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside of Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
$40,400	$63,600	$45,600	$84,000	$41,600	$97,000	$40,400	$116,000	$44,000	$50,400

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Median individual income among the Inuit population differed marginally across regions, ranging from $40,400 in both regions of Nunatsiavut and Nunavut to $45,600 in the Nunavik region of Northern Quebec.
• The gaps in median individual income relative to the non-Indigenous population in Inuit Nunangat's four constituting regions were sizable, ranging from $23,200 in Nunatsiavut to $75,600 in Nunavut.
• It is worth noting that the wide gaps reflect the high median incomes of the non-Indigenous population living in Inuit Nunangat. Outside of Inuit Nunangat, the median income of the non-Indigenous population was much lower, and the gap was comparatively narrow at $6,400.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A1.5.

Text alternative for Figure 8: Median individual income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

Figure 8: Median individual income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Income	Women+ Income
Registered Indian on reserve	$27,400	$36,800
Registered Indian off reserve	$44,000	$41,200
Non-Status Indian	$47,200	$40,800
Inuit	$39,600	$45,200
Métis	$55,200	$44,000
Non-Indigenous	$56,800	$45,200

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada implemented a method producing a two-category gender variable to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• In 2020, the median individual income for non-Indigenous men+ was higher than the median income for non-Indigenous women+ by approximately $11,600.
• By contrast, Inuit women+ had a higher median income (by $5,600) than Inuit men+. Among Registered Indians living on reserve, the median income of women+ was $9,400 higher than that of men+.
• The gap in median individual income relative to the non-Indigenous population was highest among Registered Indian men+ on reserve, at $29,400, and lowest among Métis men+, at $1,600.
• The median individual income of Inuit women+ was equivalent to that of the non-Indigenous group (no gap), while Registered Indian women+ living on reserve had the largest gap relative to the non-Indigenous group, at $8,400.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A1.6.

Low-income measure after tax

The low-income measure after tax (LIM-AT) is one way to assess the level of poverty in a population. A person is considered to be living in a low-income situation if they are part of a household whose total income (after tax) is less than half of the national median household income, adjusted for household size. The low-income threshold in 2020 was $26,503 for a single person and $53,005 for a family of four. Overall, more than 335,000 Indigenous people were living in a low-income situation in 2020 (Table 3). Data are based on the last full calendar year before the census (i.e., 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020). For a full list of all data tables relevant to the low-income measure after tax, please see Appendix A, tables A2.1 to A2.6.

Text alternative for Figure 9: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 9: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

	Percentage
Registered Indian on reserve	31.3%
Registered Indian off reserve	19.8%
Non-Status Indian	16.8%
Inuit	16.5%
Métis	12.6%
Non-Indigenous	10.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• All the Indigenous groups were more likely to live in a low-income situation than the non-Indigenous population (10.7%).
• The proportion of those living in a low-income situation was highest amongst Registered Indians, representing 31.3% of Registered Indians on reserve and 19.8% of Registered Indians off reserve.
• A slightly lower proportion of Non-Status Indians (16.8%) and Inuit (16.5%) were living in a low-income situation in 2020.
• Métis were closest to the proportion of the non-Indigenous population living in a low-income situation (12.6%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A2.1.

Text alternative for Figure 10: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2005 to 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 10: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2005 to 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2005	50.7%	36.7%	27.5%	26.3%	21.0%	13.6%
2010	54.1%	31.9%	25.3%	22.9%	19.5%	14.6%
2015	47.7%	30.3%	25.2%	22.3%	17.3%	13.8%
2020	31.3%	19.8%	16.8%	16.5%	12.6%	10.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The likelihood of living in a low-income situation decreased between 2005 and 2020 for each Indigenous group, particularly Registered Indians on reserve. That group had a total decline of 19.4 percentage points from 2005 (50.7%) to 2020 (31.3%).
• The proportion of Registered Indians living off reserve in a low-income situation dropped considerably, from 36.7% in 2005 to 19.8% in 2020, a decline of 16.9 percentage points.
• The proportion of individuals living in a low-income situation among Non-Status Indians, Inuit and Métis also fell, from 27.5 to 16.8% (10.7 percentage points), 26.3 to 16.5% (9.8 percentage points), and 21.0 to 12.6% (8.4 percentage points), respectively.
• Although the availability of government benefits during the COVID-19 pandemic may have contributed to these reductions, the downward trend was also notable between 2005 and 2015 prior to the pandemic and any related supports. Census 2026 will be important in determining if these recent reductions are long lasting.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A2.2.

Text alternative for Figure 11: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 11: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	12.4%	15.9%	15.0%	15.2%
Prince Edward Island	21.8%	20.3%	18.3%	13.7%
Nova Scotia	35.2%	17.5%	20.4%	14.6%
New Brunswick	24.0%	16.3%	21.1%	14.0%
Quebec	14.8%	16.5%	15.4%	11.8%
Ontario	33.7%	16.8%	16.0%	9.9%
Manitoba	38.5%	30.6%	31.0%	11.5%
Saskatchewan	40.9%	26.6%	28.8%	10.7%
Alberta	29.8%	19.5%	15.2%	8.6%
British Columbia	25.0%	15.9%	13.9%	10.5%
Yukon		12.9%	12.7%	6.4%
Northwest Territories	18.4%	11.3%	6.7%	2.9%
Nunavut		8.0%	9.1%	3.4%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• For Registered Indians living on reserve, the highest proportion of individuals living in a low-income situation was observed in Saskatchewan (40.9%) and Manitoba (38.5%), and the lowest in Newfoundland and Labrador (12.4%).
• Among Registered Indians living off reserve, the highest proportions of individuals living in a low-income situation were in Manitoba (30.6%) and Saskatchewan (26.6%), and the lowest in Nunavut (8.0%) and the Northwest Territories (11.3%).
• The same trend applied to Non-Status Indians, where the highest proportions of individuals living in a low-income situation were in Manitoba (31.0%) and Saskatchewan (28.8%), and the lowest in the Northwest Territories (6.7%).
• The gaps between First Nations and non-Indigenous people living in a low-income situation varied markedly across the provinces and territories. These gaps were consistently highest for Registered Indians living on and off reserve as well as Non-Status Indians in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and were lowest for those in Newfoundland and Labrador.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A2.3.

Text alternative for Figure 12: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 12: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	10.2%	15.2%
Prince Edward Island	13.6%	13.7%
Nova Scotia	14.0%	14.6%
New Brunswick	16.4%	14.0%
Quebec	15.9%	11.8%
Ontario	11.3%	9.9%
Manitoba	14.5%	11.5%
Saskatchewan	14.5%	10.7%
Alberta	11.4%	8.6%
British Columbia	10.7%	10.5%
Yukon	5.1%	6.4%
Northwest Territories	6.8%	2.9%
Nunavut		3.4%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The proportion of Métis living in a low-income situation varied across Canada.
• Métis were less likely than their non-Indigenous counterparts to live in a low-income situation in Newfoundland and Labrador (10.2%) and Yukon (5.1%).
• In Prince Edward Island (13.6%), Nova Scotia (14.0%) and British Columbia (10.7%), the proportion of Métis and non-Indigenous people living in a low-income situation was on par.
• The proportion of Métis living in a low-income situation outpaced that of the non-Indigenous population in all other regions.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A2.4.

Text alternative for Figure 13: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, by Inuit region

Figure 13: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, by Inuit region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
22.2%	13.3%	15.1%	5.8%	16.1%	5.7%	16.7%	3.4%	16.5%	10.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The proportion of Inuit living in a low-income situation was highest in Nunatsiavut (22.2%) and lowest in Nunavik (15.1%).
• The gap between Inuit and non-Indigenous people living in a low-income situation varied considerably. Inside of Inuit Nunangat, the gap was highest in Nunavut (13.3 percentage point difference) and lowest in the Nunatsiavut region (8.9 percentage point difference).
• Conversely, for Inuit residing outside the Inuit Nunangat, the gap between Inuit and non-Indigenous people living in a low-income situation was 5.8 percentage point difference.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A2.5.

Text alternative for Figure 14: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, by gender, Canada

Figure 14: Percentage living in a low-income situation, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Percentage	Women+ Percentage
Registered Indian on reserve	31.2%	31.4%
Registered Indian off reserve	18.4%	21.0%
Non-Status Indian	16.3%	17.3%
Inuit	16.1%	16.8%
Métis	11.9%	13.3%
Non-Indigenous	10.1%	11.2%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada produced a two-category gender variable that was applied to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography when necessary. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• Although women+ were more likely than men+ to be living in a low-income situation, the differences were relatively small when compared to the gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations.
• The proportion of Indigenous people living in a low-income situation ranged from 11.9% for Métis men+ to 31.2% for Registered Indian men+ living on reserve. Similarly, this percentage ranged from 13.3% for Métis women+ to 31.4% for Registered Indian women+ living on reserve.
• The gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous men+ did not differ in a marked or consistent way from the gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous women+. Both Registered Indian men+ and women+ living on reserve exhibited the largest gap with their non-Indigenous counterparts, with differences of 21.1 and 20.2 percentage points, respectively. Conversely, Métis men+ and women+ displayed the smallest gap in low-income situation with differences of 1.8 and 2.1 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A2.6.

Employment rate

The employment rate is another way to measure a population's economic health. This rate is the percentage of the working-age population (aged 25 to 64) that has a job. As seen in 2021, 538,415 Indigenous individuals aged 25 to 64 were employed, up 7.1% since 2016 (Table 6). For a full list of all data tables relevant to the employment rate, please see Appendix A, tables A3.1 to A3.6.

Text alternative for Figure 15: Employment rate, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 15: Employment rate, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
47.1%	58.7%	64.8%	55.2%	69.1%	74.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Employment rates among Indigenous Peoples in 2021 were highest for Métis (69.1%) and lowest for Registered Indians on reserve (47.1%).
• Indigenous groups presented lower employment rates than the non-Indigenous population (74.1%), particularly Registered Indians living on reserve (a gap of 27.0 percentage points).
• Large gaps in employment rates were also found for Inuit (18.9 percentage points) and Registered Indians living off reserve (15.4 percentage points).
• By contrast, a smaller gap was observed for Non-Status Indians (9.3 percentage points). The smallest gap was found for Métis at 5.0 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A3.1.

Text alternative for Figure 16: Employment rate, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 16: Employment rate, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2001	48.1%	56.4%	63.3%	59.0%	67.9%	75.1%
2006	50.2%	61.8%	67.4%	59.7%	71.5%	76.3%
2011	46.8%	61.2%	67.0%	58.6%	71.6%	75.8%
2016	46.9%	60.2%	66.1%	57.4%	70.4%	76.0%
2021	47.1%	58.7%	64.8%	55.2%	69.1%	74.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Employment rates were relatively stable from 2001 to 2021, with each Indigenous group showing little overall change, although trends differed substantially across groups.
• Among Registered Indians on reserve, the employment rate decreased by 1.0 percentage points, from 48.1% in 2001 to 47.1% in 2021.
• Among Inuit, the drop in employment rate was slightly more pronounced at 3.8 percentage points, from 59.0% in 2001 to 55.2% in 2021.
• Over this period, Registered Indians living off reserve, Non-Status Indians and Métis saw small employment rate increases of 2.3, 1.5 and 1.2 percentage points, respectively, from 2001 to 2021.
• The gap in employment rates compared to the non-Indigenous population decreased for all Indigenous groups, with the exception of Registered Indians living on reserve and Inuit. While the gap for Registered Indians living on reserve fluctuated over the years, it was identical in 2001 and 2021 at 27.0 percentage points.
• By contrast, this gap increased for the Inuit population, from 16.1% in 2001 to 18.9% in 2021 (representing a widening of 2.8 percentage points).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A3.2.

Text alternative for Figure 17: Employment rate, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 17: Employment rate, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	51.2%	62.9%	60.0%	64.9%
Prince Edward Island	60.0%	67.8%	63.8%	76.4%
Nova Scotia	45.8%	65.1%	61.8%	69.7%
New Brunswick	49.4%	65.3%	61.8%	72.3%
Quebec	62.4%	69.2%	70.4%	77.1%
Ontario	51.7%	60.6%	61.0%	71.9%
Manitoba	41.6%	49.3%	58.9%	77.6%
Saskatchewan	37.1%	49.3%	60.6%	78.9%
Alberta	40.4%	56.4%	65.0%	74.8%
British Columbia	51.3%	62.4%	69.3%	75.2%
Yukon		60.9%	73.6%	82.9%
Northwest Territories	45.5%	58.0%	72.4%	86.1%
Nunavut		87.5%	76.9%	89.9%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• In 2021, the employment rate among First Nations varied widely across the provinces and territories.
• For Registered Indians living on reserve, the employment rate ranged from 37.1% in Saskatchewan to 62.4% in Quebec. For those living off reserve, the employment rate ranged from 49.3% in Manitoba and Saskatchewan to 87.5% in Nunavut. For Non-Status Indians, the employment rate was lowest in Manitoba (58.9%) and highest in Nunavut (76.9%).
• Manitoba, Saskatchewan and the Northwest Territories stood out with the largest gaps between the non-Indigenous and First Nations populations.
• In Saskatchewan in particular, the gaps were 41.8 percentage points for Registered Indians living on reserve, 29.6 percentage points for Registered Indians living off reserve, and 18.3 percentage points for Non-Status Indians.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A3.3.

Text alternative for Figure 18: Employment rate, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 18: Employment rate, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	62.7%	64.9%
Prince Edward Island	76.5%	76.4%
Nova Scotia	66.7%	69.7%
New Brunswick	63.0%	72.3%
Quebec	70.3%	77.1%
Ontario	66.7%	71.9%
Manitoba	70.8%	77.6%
Saskatchewan	69.5%	78.9%
Alberta	68.8%	74.8%
British Columbia	71.7%	75.2%
Yukon	73.5%	82.9%
Northwest Territories	75.4%	86.1%
Nunavut	94.4%	89.9%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The employment rate for Métis ranged from 62.7% in Newfoundland and Labrador to 94.4% in Nunavut.
• The gaps in employment rate compared to the non-Indigenous population were widest in the Northwest Territories (10.7 percentage points), Yukon and Saskatchewan (9.4 percentage points each), and New Brunswick (9.3 percentage points).
• The gaps were narrowest in Nunavut, where the employment rate of Métis surpassed that of the non-Indigenous population by 4.5 percentage points, and in Prince Edward Island, where the rates of both populations were the same.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A3.4.

Text alternative for Figure 19: Employment rate, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Figure 19: Employment rate, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside of Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
51.2%	73.7%	60.8%	89.6%	54.1%	87.1%	47.9%	89.9%	62.2%	74.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• In 2021, the employment rate among Inuit within Inuit Nunangat ranged from 47.9% in Nunavut to 60.8% in Nunavik. Outside Inuit Nunangat, the employment rate was 62.2%.
• The gaps in employment rate compared to the non-Indigenous were smallest outside Inuit Nunangat (11.9 percentage points).
• Inside Inuit Nunangat, the smallest gap was in Nunatsiavut (22.5 percentage points) and the largest in Nunavut (42 percentage points).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A3.5.

Text alternative for Figure 20: Employment rate, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

Figure 20: Employment rate, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Percentage	Women+ Percentage
Registered Indian on reserve	47.2%	47.0%
Registered Indian off reserve	61.7%	56.2%
Non-Status Indian	67.2%	62.8%
Inuit	54.4%	55.9%
Métis	71.7%	66.8%
Non-Indigenous	78.3%	70.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada produced a two-category gender variable that was applied to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography when necessary. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• The gaps in employment rates between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations were larger among men+ than among women+. This trend was also reflected among the different Indigenous groups.
• The gap between Registered Indian women+ living on reserve and non-Indigenous women+ was 23.1 percentage points, whereas the gap between Registered Indian men+ on reserve and non-Indigenous men+ was 31.1 percentage points.
• Both Registered Indian men+ and women+ living on reserve had the largest gaps in employment rate compared to their respective non-Indigenous populations, followed by Inuit, Registered Indians off reserve, Non-Status Indians and Métis.
• When comparing men+ and women+, men+ had higher employment rates in all Indigenous groups, with the exception of Inuit where women were slightly (1.5 percentage points) more likely to be employed.
• Registered Indian men+ and women+ were close to parity in employment rates.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A3.6.

Employment income

The median employment income measure complements employment rates, as it is a common way to assess the quality of jobs held by the employed population. For a full list of all data tables relevant to employment income, please see Appendix A, tables A4.1 to A4.6.

Text alternative for Figure 21: Median employment income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 21: Median employment income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
$29,400	$40,000	$40,400	$39,600	$45,600	$47,600

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The median employment income differed markedly across Indigenous groups, ranging from $29,400 for Registered Indians on reserve to $45,600 for Métis.
• In 2020, the gap in median employment income was largest between Registered Indians on reserve and the non-Indigenous population, at $18,200, and smallest between Métis and the non-Indigenous population, at $2,000.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A4.1.

Text alternative for Figure 22: Median employment income, 2005 to 2020 (adjusted), Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 22: Median employment income, 2005 to 2020 (adjusted), Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2005	$26,800	$38,000	$41,200	$38,800	$44,500	$51,400
2010	$28,800	$41,500	$42,300	$38,700	$46,900	$50,500
2015	$25,200	$38,300	$39,500	$35,600	$44,800	$46,200
2020	$29,400	$40,000	$40,400	$39,600	$45,600	$47,600

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2006 to 2021 Census of Population.

Note: The dollar values have been adjusted for inflation and are stated in terms of their value in 2020.

• With the exception of Non-Status Indians (-$800), each Indigenous group made more money in 2020 than in 2005. These increases ranged from $760 for Inuit to $2,600 a year for Registered Indians living on reserve, after accounting for inflation.
• The median employment income decreased by $3,800 for the non-Indigenous population during the same time period.
• As a result, the gap in median employment income compared to the non-Indigenous population diminished for all Indigenous groups from 2005 to 2020, narrowing to the greatest extent for Registered Indians living on reserve (total of $6,400), followed by Registered Indians off reserve ($5,800), Métis ($4,900), Inuit ($4,600) and Non-Status Indians ($3,000).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A4.2.

Text alternative for Figure 23: Median employment income, 2020, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 23: Median employment income, 2020, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	$25,600	$38,000	$38,800	$41,600
Prince Edward Island	$26,800	$31,000	$28,800	$40,400
Nova Scotia	$27,600	$40,800	$34,800	$42,800
New Brunswick	$25,600	$33,600	$32,000	$41,600
Quebec	$36,400	$41,600	$40,000	$45,200
Ontario	$32,400	$43,200	$41,200	$49,200
Manitoba	$24,800	$33,200	$38,800	$45,600
Saskatchewan	$24,600	$34,400	$36,400	$49,200
Alberta	$30,600	$40,400	$45,600	$52,400
British Columbia	$30,000	$40,400	$41,200	$48,000
Yukon		$48,000	$62,400	$66,500
Northwest Territories	$19,400	$47,600	$71,000	$88,000
Nunavut		$103,000	$103,000	$114,000

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Notable disparities in median employment income appear when considering regional trends for First Nations populations. In Alberta, for example, the median employment income for First Nations ranged from $30,600 for Registered Indians living on reserve to $45,600 for Non-Status Indians. In the Northwest Territories, the median employment income was lowest for Registered Indians living on reserve, at $19,400, and highest for Non-Status Indians, at $71,000.
• Gaps in national median employment income can further conceal important regional differences.
• For Registered Indians living on reserve, the gap in median employment income compared to the non-Indigenous population was highest in the Northwest Territories ($68,600), followed by Saskatchewan ($24,600), and was lowest in Quebec ($8,800).
• Registered Indians living off reserve followed similar regional trends, although the gaps were not as large in the Northwest Territories ($40,400) and Saskatchewan ($14,800). The gap was smallest in Nova Scotia ($2,000).
• For Non-Status Indians, the gap was largest in the Northwest Territories ($17,000) and Saskatchewan ($12,800), and smallest in Newfoundland and Labrador ($2,800).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A4.3.

Text alternative for Figure 24: Median employment income, 2020, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 24: Median employment income, 2020, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	$41,600	$41,600
Prince Edward Island	$40,000	$40,400
Nova Scotia	$40,000	$42,800
New Brunswick	$33,600	$41,600
Quebec	$42,400	$45,200
Ontario	$48,000	$49,200
Manitoba	$44,400	$45,600
Saskatchewan	$46,800	$49,200
Alberta	$48,800	$52,400
British Columbia	$44,800	$48,000
Yukon	$60,000	$66,500
Northwest Territories	$79,000	$88,000
Nunavut	$124,000	$114,000

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The median employment income of the Métis population ranged from $33,600 in New Brunswick to $124,000 in in Nunavut.
• The small gap in median employment income observed for Métis at the national level was similarly small in most regions.
• The gap in median employment income compared to the non-Indigenous population was largest in Northwest Territories ($9,000) and New Brunswick ($8,000). In Newfoundland and Labrador, the median employment incomes of both populations were on par, while in Nunavut, the median income of Métis surpassed that of the non-Indigenous population by $10,000.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A4.4.

Text alternative for Figure 25: Median employment income, 2020, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Figure 25: Median employment income, 2020, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
$36,800	$75,500	$34,000	$83,000	$42,000	$98,000	$37,200	$114,000	$44,000	$47,600

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The median employment income among Inuit varied regionally. Outside Inuit Nunangat, the median income was $44,000. Inside Inuit Nunangat, the median income ranged from $36,800 in Nunatsiavut to $42,000 in the Inuvialuit Region.
• Outside Inuit Nunangat, the gap in median employment income for Inuit was relatively narrow, with Inuit earning $3,600 less then their non-Indigenous counterparts.
• Inside Inuit Nunangat, the gap between the Inuit and non-Indigenous populations was significantly larger, ranging from $38,700 in Nunatsiavut to $76,800 in Nunavut.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A4.5.

Text alternative for Figure 26: Median employment income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

Figure 26: Median employment income, 2020, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Income	Women+ Income
Registered Indian on reserve	$27,200	$31,400
Registered Indian off reserve	$45,600	$35,600
Non-Status Indian	$47,600	$34,800
Inuit	$41,200	$38,000
Métis	$54,800	$38,000
Non-Indigenous	$55,600	$40,800

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada produced a two-category gender variable that was applied to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography when necessary. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• The gap in median employment income between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations was generally larger among men+ than among women+.
• For men+, the largest gap was identified for Registered Indians living on reserve ($28,400), followed by Inuit ($14,400), Registered Indians living off reserve ($10,000), Non-Status Indians ($8,000) and Métis ($800).
• For women+, the largest gap was observed among Registered Indians living on reserve ($9,400), followed by Non-Status Indians ($6,000) and Registered Indians living off reserve ($5,200). The smallest gap was found among Inuit and Métis at $2,800 and $2,000, respectively.
• Men+ had higher median employment incomes than women+ for all Indigenous groups except Registered Indians living on reserve. In that group, women+ made an additional $4,200 over men+.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A4.6.

Education – having at least a high school credential

In addition to being a baseline requirement for many careers, completion of a formal education at the high school level or above has the benefit of ensuring that individuals have the literacy, numeracy and other skills they need to participate fully in Canada's economy and in civil society, and to effectively access the services and benefits to which they are entitled. As with most measures, high school completion can be assessed in a number of ways. The census measures the highest level of education each person has achieved. All individuals who have a high school diploma or equivalency degree or who have engaged in any form of post-secondary education (e.g., university, college or trade school) are considered to have at least a high school credential. As seen in Table 11, there were 80,280 more Indigenous people with a high school education in 2021 than in 2016. For a full list of all data tables relevant to high school completion, please see Appendix A, tables A5.1 to A5.7.

Changes in a population's education levels tend to start with youth. As the availability of and need for formal education expands, young people strive to obtain the credentials they need to achieve their career goals. Although older adults can and do obtain additional educational credentials, most people complete their formal education when they are relatively young. Looking at the educational attainment of younger cohorts can therefore provide some insight into how the overall gap in education can be expected to change in the future. Simply put, if the gaps are smaller among younger cohorts (under 25 years of age), the overall gaps are in the process of narrowing.

Text alternative for Figure 27: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 27: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
59.9%	78.2%	82.7%	56.0%	85.5%	90.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• High school completion rates varied substantially among the Indigenous groups. The percentage of individuals aged 25 to 64 with at least a high school credential was highest among Métis (85.5%) and lowest among Inuit (56.0%).
• The largest gap in high school completion compared to the non-Indigenous population was found for Inuit (34.7 percentage points), followed by Registered Indians living on reserve (30.8 percentage points) and Registered Indians living off reserve (12.5 percentage points).
• By contrast, the gaps for Non-Status Indians (8.0 percentage points) and Métis (5.2 percentage points) were smaller.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.1.

Text alternative for Figure 28: Gap in high school completion (in percentage points) between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 18 to 24, 25 to 34, 35+ and 25 to 64, 2021, Canada

Figure 28: Gap in high school completion (in percentage points) between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 18 to 24, 25 to 34, 35+ and 25 to 64, 2021, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve				Registered Indian off reserve				Non-Status Indian				Inuit				Métis
18 to 24	25 to 35	35+	25 to 64	18 to 24	25 to 35	35+	25 to 64	18 to 24	25 to 35	35+	25 to 64	18 to 24	25 to 35	35+	25 to 64	18 to 24	25 to 35	35+	25 to 64
-36.8	-35.0	-27.3	-30.8	-16.1	-14.2	-11.0	-12.6	-12.2	-9.8	-6.3	-8.0	-39.6	-37.8	-31.7	-34.7	-6.3	-5.2	-4.8	-5.2

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The gaps in high school completion compared to the non-Indigenous population were largest for the youngest cohort (aged 18-24) and smallest for those aged 35+ across all Indigenous groups.
• The largest disparities compared to the non-Indigenous population were observed among Inuit aged 18 to 24 and 25 to 34, where the differences were 39.6 and 37.8 percentage points, respectively. The gaps for Registered Indians on reserve aged 18 to 24 and 25 to 34 living on reserve were also particularly high at 36.9 and 35.0 percentage points, respectively.
• Differences between the youngest (18 to 24) and oldest (35+) cohorts were highest among Registered Indians on reserve (6.6 percentage point difference) and Inuit (5.4 percentage point difference).
• Métis had the smallest gaps compared to the non-Indigenous population, at 5.2 percentage points for those aged 24 to 34 and 6.3 for those aged 18 to 24, as well as the smallest changes between the age cohorts, with only a 1.6 percentage point difference between the youngest and oldest cohorts.
• The gap among the working-age (aged 25 to 64) population is also provided for comparison, as this age cohort presents the standard used throughout this section of the report.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.2.

Text alternative for Figure 29: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 29: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	60.1%	87.3%	87.2%	80.9%	85.9%	87.6%
Prince Edward Island	68.0%	89.0%	86.2%	100.0%	90.6%	91.0%
Nova Scotia	75.4%	88.3%	87.7%	86.0%	86.7%	90.3%
New Brunswick	72.6%	84.3%	83.4%	81.8%	86.1%	89.3%
Quebec	58.5%	79.5%	81.9%	45.0%	83.3%	88.5%
Ontario	62.4%	82.2%	83.4%	81.0%	88.5%	91.4%
Manitoba	51.3%	71.4%	74.9%	79.5%	84.1%	90.6%
Saskatchewan	58.5%	75.5%	75.9%	78.6%	84.8%	91.8%
Alberta	53.5%	75.8%	81.7%	83.1%	83.6%	90.9%
British Columbia	68.5%	78.8%	82.8%	85.8%	86.6%	92.6%
Yukon		73.4%	81.3%	68.0%	87.9%	93.8%
Northwest Territories	31.8%	59.0%	77.6%	55.5%	79.8%	94.2%
Nunavut		81.3%	84.6%	42.7%	88.9%	94.9%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• High school completion rates gradually increased from 2001 to 2021 for all Indigenous groups, as well as for the non-Indigenous population. Registered Indians living on reserve, for example, experienced a 8.6% increase, while Registered Indians those living off reserve saw an increase of 14.6 percentage points.
• Although the proportion of Registered Indians living on reserve with a high school education rose from 51.3% in 2001 to 59.9% in 2021, the gap compared to the non-Indigenous population widened slightly from 26.4 percentage points to 30.8 percentage points.
• Registered Indians living off reserve and Non-Status Indians reported similar high school completion rates, although the gap between Non-Status Indians and the non-Indigenous population was slightly smaller across all census years.
• Since 2021, Inuit have had the lowest proportion of high school completion of all the Indigenous groups and the largest gaps compared to the non-Indigenous population, ranging from 25.9 percentage points in 2001 to 36.6 in 2006.
• Métis have seen the largest increase in high school completion rates, from 66.7% in 2001 to 85.5% in 2021. During the same period, the gap compared to the non-Indigenous population shrunk at a steady pace, from 11.0 percentage points in 2001 to 5.2 percentage points in 2021.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.3.

Text alternative for Figure 30: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 30: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	60.1%	87.3%	87.2%	87.6%
Prince Edward Island	68.0%	89.0%	86.2%	91.0%
Nova Scotia	75.4%	88.3%	87.7%	90.3%
New Brunswick	72.6%	84.3%	83.4%	89.3%
Quebec	58.5%	79.5%	81.9%	88.5%
Ontario	62.4%	82.2%	83.4%	91.4%
Manitoba	51.3%	71.4%	74.9%	90.6%
Saskatchewan	58.5%	75.5%	75.9%	91.8%
Alberta	53.5%	75.8%	81.7%	90.9%
British Columbia	68.5%	78.8%	82.8%	92.6%
Yukon		73.4%	81.3%	93.8%
Northwest Territories	31.8%	59.0%	77.6%	94.2%
Nunavut		81.3%	84.6%	94.9%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• High school completion rates vary considerably across the provinces and territories.
• For Registered Indians living on reserve, the highest high school completion rates were found in Nova Scotia (75.4%) and New Brunswick (72.6%). By contrast, the Northwest Territories displayed the lowest rate (31.8%) and the largest gap compared to the non-Indigenous population, at 62.4 percentage points.
• For Registered Indians living off reserve, the highest high school completion rates were found in Prince Edward Island (89.0%) and Nova Scotia (88.3%). Again, the Northwest Territories had the lowest rate (59.0%) and the largest gap (35.2 percentage points).
• High school completion rates for Non-Status Indians showed less variation, ranging from 74.9% in Manitoba to 87.7 in Nova Scotia. The largest gap was again found in the Northwest Territories (16.6 percentage points).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.4.

Text alternative for Figure 31: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 31: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	85.9%	87.6%
Prince Edward Island	90.6%	91.0%
Nova Scotia	86.7%	90.3%
New Brunswick	86.1%	89.3%
Quebec	83.3%	88.5%
Ontario	88.5%	91.4%
Manitoba	84.1%	90.6%
Saskatchewan	84.8%	91.8%
Alberta	83.6%	90.9%
British Columbia	86.6%	92.6%
Yukon	87.9%	93.8%
Northwest Territories	79.8%	94.2%
Nunavut	88.9%	94.9%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Regional variation in high school attainment is modest among Métis, and the gaps relative to the non-Indigenous population range from close to zero in the four Atlantic Provinces to 14.4 percentage points in the Northwest Territories.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.5.

Text alternative for Figure 32: Percentage with at least a high school credential, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Figure 32: Percentage with at least a high school credential, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by Inuit region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
67.6%	84.2%	37.1%	83.5%	50.2%	93.9%	42.7%	94.9%	82.1%	90.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Within Inuit Nunangat, the percentage of Inuit with at least a high school credential ranged from 37.1% in Nunavik to 67.6% in Nunatsiavut. The highest proportion was found outside Inuit Nunangat, at 82.1%.
• Outside Inuit Nunangat, the gap in high school completion for Inuit compared to the non-Indigenous population was 8.6 percentage points.
• Within Inuit Nunangat, the gap was considerably wider, ranging from 16.6 percentage points in Nunatsiavut to 52.2 percentage points in Nunavik.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.6.

Text alternative for Figure 33: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

Figure 33: Percentage of people with at least a high school credential, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Percentage	Women+ Percentage
Registered Indian on reserve	55.5%	64.3%
Registered Indian off reserve	75.1%	80.7%
Non-Status Indian	79.3%	85.7%
Inuit	52.7%	59.0%
Métis	82.4%	88.3%
Non-Indigenous	89.3%	92.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada produced a two-category gender variable that was applied to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography when necessary. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• Unlike with other socio-economic indicators such as income and employment, women+ tended to have higher levels of educational attainment than men+. These levels were highest among Métis women+ at 88.3%, and lowest among Inuit women+ at 59.0%. Likewise, for Indigenous men+, these rates were highest for Métis (82.4%) and lowest for Inuit (52.7%).
• Both men+ and women+ showed the same overall trends with regard to gaps in high school completion relative to the non-Indigenous population. These gaps were highest for Inuit, followed by Registered Indians living on reserve, Registered Indians living off reserve and Non-Status Indians. Gaps were smallest for Métis men+ and women+.
• Gaps in high school completion were larger between Indigenous and non-Indigenous men+ than women+. Among Registered Indian men+ living on reserve, the gap in high school completion relative to the non-Indigenous population was 33.8 percentage points compared to 27.8 percentage points for women+. This was the largest difference between men+ and women+, at 6.0 percentage points.
• For Registered Indian men+ and women+ living off reserve, the gaps in high school completion were 14.2 and 11.4 percentage points, respectively. This represents the smallest difference between men+ and women+ of any group, at 2.8 percentage points. The difference in gap between Métis men+ and women+ was similar, at 3.1 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A5.7.

Education – completion of a university degree

Although not all individuals want or need a university degree to fulfill their career goals, those with a university degree still have the highest incomes in Canada. A degree can generally expand a person's employment options as well as provide advanced skills that can be assets in various domains of life. In total, there were 47,980 more Indigenous people with a university degree in 2021 than in 2016 (Table 14). For a full list of all data tables relevant to university completion, please see Appendix A, tables A6.1 to A6.7.

Text alternative for Figure 34: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 34: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
9.1%	15.7%	16.4%	7.6%	18.8%	37.0%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of Indigenous people in the working-age population (aged 25 to 64) with a university degree was substantially lower than that of the non-Indigenous population.
• Of Registered Indians living on reserve, 9.1% had a university degree, compared to 15.7% of Registered Indians living off reserve, amounting to a gap of 27.9 percentage points.
• Non-Status Indians and Métis had similar rates of university completion at 16.4 and 18.8%, respectively, as well as comparable gaps relative to the non-Indigenous population at 20.6 and 18.2 percentage points. These were the lowest among the Indigenous groups.
• Inuit showed the lowest rate of university completion at only 7.6%, and the widest gap at 29.4 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.1.

Text alternative for Figure 35: Gap in university completion (in percentage points) between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 34 and 25 to 64, 2021, Canada

Figure 35: Gap in university completion (in percentage points) between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 34 and 25 to 64, 2021, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve		Registered Indian off reserve		Non-Status Indian		Inuit		Métis
Aged 25 to 34	Aged 25 to 64	Aged 25 to 34	Aged 25 to 64	Aged 25 to 34	Aged 25 to 64	Aged 25 to 34	Aged 25 to 64	Aged 25 to 34	Aged 25 to 64
39.2	27.9	29.3	21.3	26.4	20.7	38.0	29.4	21.7	18.3

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The gaps in the percentage of Indigenous and non-Indigenous individuals having completed a university degree were larger among individuals aged 25 to 34 than among the working population as a whole (aged 25 to 64), suggesting that disparities in university completion are not poised to improve in the short term.
• The gap relative to the non-Indigenous population aged 25 to 34 was most pronounced for Registered Indians living on reserve (39.2 percentage points) and Inuit (38.0 percentage points).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.2.

Text alternative for Figure 36: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 36: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2001	3.4%	6.8%	7.0%	2.5%	7.2%	20.1%
2006	4.4%	9.0%	7.9%	3.7%	9.2%	23.4%
2011	4.7%	11.0%	10.7%	5.1%	12.1%	26.5%
2016	5.4%	11.3%	11.9%	5.3%	13.6%	29.3%
2021	9.1%	15.7%	16.4%	7.6%	18.8%	37.0%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of Indigenous people with a university degree has slowly increased over the years. For example, 3.4% of Registered Indians living on reserve had a degree in 2001 compared to 9.1% in 2021.
• The gaps in university completion between the Indigenous groups and the non-Indigenous population increased from 2001 to 2021.
• For Registered Indians living on reserve, the gap widened from 16.7 percentage points in 2001 to 27.9 percentage points in 2021.
• The gaps for Registered Indians living off reserve, Non-Status Indians and Inuit followed a similar path, growing respectively from 13.3 to 21.3 percentage points, 13.1 to 20.6 percentage points and 12.9 to 18.2 percentage points during the same period.
• The largest change in gap was seen among Inuit, growing from 17.6 to 29.4 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.3.

Text alternative for Figure 37: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 37: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	8.1%	19.5%	22.3%	23.4%
Prince Edward Island	10.0%	16.9%	13.8%	30.0%
Nova Scotia	19.1%	21.9%	20.1%	32.7%
New Brunswick	11.4%	21.0%	13.1%	25.8%
Quebec	9.8%	18.9%	15.9%	33.8%
Ontario	8.3%	16.4%	15.8%	39.9%
Manitoba	7.5%	12.7%	11.9%	35.4%
Saskatchewan	8.5%	15.8%	14.1%	31.7%
Alberta	7.5%	13.9%	16.4%	35.9%
British Columbia	10.7%	16.3%	17.1%	40.5%
Yukon		11.8%	23.1%	42.4%
Northwest Territories		8.4%	17.2%	45.0%
Nunavut		18.8%	30.8%	55.5%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• For Registered Indians living on reserve, the largest gaps in university degree attainment compared to the non-Indigenous population were found in Ontario (31.6%), British Columbia (29.8%), Alberta (28.4%) and Manitoba (27.9%). The smallest gap was observed in Nova Scotia (13.6%).
• For Registered Indians living off reserve, the largest gaps were all found in the North: 36.7 percentage points in Nunavut, 36.6 percentage points in the Northwest Territories and 30.6 percentage points in Yukon. The smallest gap was observed in Newfoundland and Labrador, at 3.9 percentage points.
• For Non-Status Indians, the largest gaps were located in the Northwest Territories (27.8 percentage points), Nunavut (24.7 percentage points) and Ontario (24.1 percentage points), while the smallest gap was observed in Newfoundland and Labrador, at 1.1 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.4.

Text alternative for Figure 38: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 38: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	15%	23%
Prince Edward Island	29%	30%
Nova Scotia	22%	33%
New Brunswick	16%	26%
Quebec	19%	34%
Ontario	20%	40%
Manitoba	18%	35%
Saskatchewan	18%	32%
Alberta	17%	36%
British Columbia	20%	41%
Yukon	27%	42%
Northwest Territories	21%	45%
Nunavut	33%	56%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• For Métis, the largest gaps in university degree attainment compared to the non-Indigenous population were found in the Northwest Territories (23.7 percentage points), Nunavut (22.2 percentage points) and British Columbia (20.2 percentage points).
• Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador had the smallest gap, at 0.6 percentage points and 8.3 percentage points, respectively.
• Of note, the Métis populations in Nunavut (110 people) and Prince Edward Island (770 people) are small. Therefore, the observed trends in these areas more likely result from the effects of the small population size rather than reflect robust regional differences.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.5.

Text alternative for Figure 39: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Figure 39: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
7.5%	52.6%	2.2%	42.1%	4.9%	52.8%	4.0%	55.5%	15.4%	37.0%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of Inuit aged 25 to 64 with a university degree was strikingly low within Inuit Nunangat, ranging from 2.2% in Nunavik to 7.5% in Nunatsiavut. The percentage was highest among those residing outside Inuit Nunangat, at 15.4%.
• There were substantial gaps in university completion between Inuit and the non-Indigenous population, particularly within Inuit Nunangat where nearly half of the non-Indigenous population in each region had a university degree, compared to only a very small percentage of Inuit.
• While this gap was narrower outside Inuit Nunangat (21.6 percentage points), the difference in university completion between Inuit and the non-Indigenous population remained stark.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.6.

Text alternative for Figure 40: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

Figure 40: Percentage of people with a university degree, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Percentage	Women+ Percentage
Registered Indian on reserve	5.1%	13.0%
Registered Indian off reserve	11.0%	20.5%
Non-Status Indian	11.5%	21.0%
Inuit	4.6%	11.1%
Métis	13.8%	23.3%
Non-Indigenous	33.2%	40.8%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada produced a two-category gender variable that was applied to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography when necessary. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• The gaps in university completion between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations were similar for men+ and women+. These gaps were lowest among Métis, at 19.4 percentage points for men+ and 17.5 percentage points for women+, and highest among Inuit, at 28.6 percentage points for men+ and 29.7 percentage points for women+.
• For all Indigenous groups, university completion was higher among women+ than men+. The largest differences were found among Registered Indians off reserve (11.0% for men+ and 20.5% for women+), Non-Status Indians (11.5 for men+ and 21.0 for women+) and Métis (13.8 for men+ and 23.3 for women+). In each group, the difference in university completion rates between men+ and women+ was 9.5 percentage points. The smallest difference was found among Inuit, at 6.5 percentage points, with men+ at 4.6% and women+ at 11.1%.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A6.7.

Housing – Crowding

The Census of Population collects data on housing suitability, which refers to whether a dwelling has enough bedrooms for the size and composition of the household based on the National Occupancy Standards. The World Health Organization identified overcrowding as a major factor in the transmission of diseases, and it has been linked to other adverse outcomes such as behavioural issues among children. While the likelihood that a person will live in a crowded dwelling is in part a function of their income or wealth, it is also impacted by the availability of housing and other aspects of local housing markets, and therefore should be measured separately. As seen in Table 17, there were 23,345 Indigenous households residing in a dwelling classified as crowded in 2021, up 125 households since 2016. For a full list of all data tables relevant to crowded housing, please see Appendix A, tables A7.1 to A7.5.

Text alternative for Figure 41: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 41: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
11.3%	2.8%	0.9%	13.9%	1.0%	2.3%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• In 2021, crowded dwellings were relatively rare (2.3%) among the non-Indigenous population, although, as previously cited (see Figure 9), 10.7% of that population was living in a low-income situation.
• Crowded dwellings were similarly uncommon among Registered Indians living off reserve (2.8%), Non-Status Indians (0.9%) and Métis (1.0%).
• By contrast, the gaps in the proportion of crowded dwellings relative to the non-Indigenous population were substantial among Registered Indians living on reserve (11.3%, representing a difference of 9.0 percentage points) and Inuit (13.9%, representing a difference of 11.6 percentage points).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A7.1.

Text alternative for Figure 42: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 42: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2001	13.8%	3.8%	1.3%	15.3%	1.5%	1.3%
2006	12.6%	3.4%	1.3%	16.3%	1.2%	1.4%
2011	13.1%	3.4%	1.4%	15.6%	1.3%	1.9%
2016	12.7%	2.7%	1.1%	16.0%	0.8%	1.8%
2021	11.3%	2.8%	0.9%	13.9%	1.0%	2.3%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• From 2001 to 2021, the percentage of crowded dwellings decreased slightly across all Indigenous groups. By contrast, among the non-Indigenous population, the percentage increased by 1.0 percentage point (1.3% in 2001 to 2.3% in 2021).
• Registered Indians living on reserve experienced the largest decline in overcrowding (2.5 percentage points) over this 20-year period, dropping from 13.8% in 2001 to 11.3% in 2021, followed by Inuit with a decline of 1.4 percentage points, then Registered Indians living off reserve (1.0 percentage point), Métis (0.5% points) and Non-Status Indians (0.4 percentage points).
• The percentage gaps in crowded dwellings relative to the non-Indigenous population slightly narrowed for all Indigenous groups between 2001 and 2021, ranging from a 1.4 percentage point reduction for Non-Status Indians to a 3.5 percentage point reduction for Registered Indians living on reserve.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A7.2.

Text alternative for Figure 43: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 43: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	8.5%	0.3%		0.4%
Prince Edward Island				1.1%
Nova Scotia	6.0%	0.8%	0.6%	1.0%
New Brunswick	1.8%	0.2%	0.5%	0.7%
Quebec	9.9%	1.2%	0.4%	1.3%
Ontario	8.9%	1.6%	1.1%	3.0%
Manitoba	20.8%	5.8%	2.6%	3.1%
Saskatchewan	14.7%	5.1%	2.0%	2.1%
Alberta	13.9%	3.1%	0.8%	2.7%
British Columbia	5.1%	2.7%	1.3%	2.8%
Yukon		3.1%	0.0%	2.2%
Northwest Territories	11.1%	8.0%	0.0%	3.8%
Nunavut		0.0%	0.0%	3.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Crowding among First Nations was overwhelmingly an issue for those living on reserve. The highest percentages of First Nations dwellings on reserve that were classified as crowded were found in the Prairie provinces (20.8% in Manitoba, 14.7% in Saskatchewan and 13.9% in Alberta).
• The gaps relative to the non-Indigenous population were particularly large in the Prairie provinces (ranging from a difference of 11.2 percentage points in Alberta to 17.7 percentage points in Manitoba), in Quebec (8.6 percentage points) and in Newfoundland and Labrador (8.1 percentage points).
• Registered Indians living off reserve experienced the highest rates of crowding in Manitoba (5.8%) and Saskatchewan (5.1%). Likewise, Non-Status Indians had the highest rates of crowding in Manitoba (2.6%) and Saskatchewan (2.0%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A7.3.

Text alternative for Figure 44: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 44: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	0.5%	0.4%
Prince Edward Island		1.1%
Nova Scotia	0.4%	1.0%
New Brunswick	0.5%	0.7%
Quebec	0.4%	1.3%
Ontario	0.9%	3.0%
Manitoba	0.9%	3.1%
Saskatchewan	1.2%	2.1%
Alberta	1.2%	2.7%
British Columbia	1.3%	2.8%
Yukon	1.5%	2.2%
Northwest Territories	1.4%	3.8%
Nunavut		3.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• As previously noted, the percentage of dwellings classified as crowded was slightly higher among the non-Indigenous population than Métis.
• The gaps in percentage of crowded dwellings between Métis and the non-Indigenous population were very small across the country.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A7.4.

Text alternative for Figure 45: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 45: Percentage of dwellings classified as crowded, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside of Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
4.3%	0.0%	20.3%	3.9%	9.7%	2.8%	28.2%	3.7%	1.6%	2.3%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of Inuit dwellings classified as crowded varied significantly by region and by location within or outside Inuit Nunangat.
• Inside Inuit Nunangat, while crowded dwellings were rare among the non-Indigenous population, more than one-quarter of Inuit dwellings were classified as crowded in Nunavut (28.2%), and one-fifth were classified as crowded in Nunavik (20.3%). Crowding among Inuit dwellings in Inuvialuit (9.7%) and Nunatsiavut (4.3%) was also substantially higher than among the non-Indigenous population.
• Outside Inuit Nunangat, crowded dwellings were similarly uncommon for Inuit (1.6%) and the non-Indigenous population (2.3%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A7.5.

Housing – Dwellings in need of major repair

Similar to living in a crowded home, living in a home that is in need of major repair can have adverse impacts on a person's well-being, both directly (e.g., if mould is present) and indirectly (e.g., by creating financial or mental stress, being disruptive or depriving people of the household facilities on which they depend). As seen in Table 19, there were 108,965 Indigenous households residing in a dwelling classified as needing major repair in 2021, down 3,715 households since 2016. For a full list of all data tables relevant to dwellings in need of major repair, please see Appendix A, tables A8.1 to A8.5.

Text alternative for Figure 46: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 46: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
34.0%	10.9%	10.7%	21.2%	9.4%	5.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of dwellings in need of major repair was highest among Registered Indians living on reserve (34.0%) and lowest among Métis (9.4%).
• The gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations were substantial. These gaps were widest for Registered Indians living on reserve (28.3 percentage points) and narrowest for Métis (3.7 percentage points).
• This gap was also sizeable for Inuit at 15.5 percentage points, and similar in size for Registered Indians off reserve and Non-Status Indians at 5.2 percentage points and 5.0 percentage points, respectively.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A8.1.

Text alternative for Figure 47: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 47: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2001 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2001	36.9%	16.2%	17.3%	20.1%	14.9%	7.8%
2006	42.2%	15.4%	14.5%	22.4%	12.5%	7.0%
2011	39.7%	14.4%	13.2%	25.1%	12.1%	6.9%
2016	40.0%	12.2%	12.3%	21.8%	10.3%	6.0%
2021	34.0%	10.9%	10.7%	21.2%	9.4%	5.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Overall, there was a decline in the percentage of dwellings in need of major repair for most Indigenous groups between 2001 and 2021. Comparatively, in that same period, there was a narrowing of gaps between Indigenous groups and the non-Indigenous population, with the exception of Inuit.
• Over this 20-year period, Non-Status Indians experienced the greatest decline in the percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, from 17.3% to 10.7% (6.6 percentage points), followed by Métis (5.5 percentage points), Registered Indians living off reserve (5.3 percentage points) and Registered Indians living on reserve (2.9 percentage points). By contrast, the percentage of Inuit dwellings in need of major repair increased by 1.1 percentage points.
• The percentage of dwellings in need of major repair noticeably declined for Registered Indians living on reserve between 2016 and 2021 (6.0 percentage point reduction). Nevertheless, this group has consistently had the highest rates since 2001.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A8.2.

Text alternative for Figure 48: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 48: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	19.5%	7.2%	7.6%	5.1%
Prince Edward Island	32.5%	12.8%	11.1%	6.9%
Nova Scotia	22.8%	10.6%	14.8%	7.9%
New Brunswick	31.4%	12.5%	13.0%	7.3%
Quebec	23.0%	9.2%	9.4%	6.1%
Ontario	30.5%	10.6%	11.7%	5.5%
Manitoba	43.8%	12.6%	14.6%	5.8%
Saskatchewan	40.6%	11.4%	11.6%	6.2%
Alberta	42.2%	8.8%	8.2%	5.0%
British Columbia	28.6%	11.1%	10.4%	5.4%
Yukon		21.5%	15.9%	9.7%
Northwest Territories	38.9%	27.4%	23.3%	10.4%
Nunavut		13.3%	20.0%	10.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• There were considerable regional variations in the percentage of First Nations dwellings requiring major repair. These needs were highest for Registered Indians on reserve in the Prairie provinces (43.8% in Manitoba, 42.2% in Alberta and 40.6% in Saskatchewan).
• Similarly, the gaps in dwellings requiring major repair relative to the non-Indigenous population were widest for Registered Indians living on reserve in the Prairies, where the percentage of dwellings requiring major repair surpassed that of the non-Indigenous population by 38.0 percentage points in Manitoba, 37.2 percentage points in Alberta and 34.4 percentage points in Saskatchewan.
• For Registered Indians living off reserve, these gaps ranged from a low of 2.1 percentage points in Newfoundland and Labrador to a high of 17.0 percentage points in the Northwest Territories.
• Similarly, for Non-Status Indians, the gaps ranged from 2.5 percentage points in Newfoundland and Labrador to 12.9 percentage points in the Northwest Territories.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A8.3.

Text alternative for Figure 49: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 49: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	8.6%	5.1%
Prince Edward Island	10.1%	6.9%
Nova Scotia	10.3%	7.9%
New Brunswick	11.8%	7.3%
Quebec	10.9%	6.1%
Ontario	9.8%	5.5%
Manitoba	9.3%	5.8%
Saskatchewan	10.1%	6.2%
Alberta	8.3%	5.0%
British Columbia	8.4%	5.4%
Yukon	16.8%	9.7%
Northwest Territories	17.7%	10.4%
Nunavut		10.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of Métis dwellings in need of major repair varied regionally. Percentages ranged from a low of 8.3% in Alberta to a high of 17.7% in the Northwest Territories.
• The gaps in percentage of dwellings in need of major repairs relative to the non-Indigenous population differed minimally across the provinces and territories. The gap was smallest for Métis in Nova Scotia (2.4 percentage points) and British Columbia (3.0 percentage points), and largest in the Northwest Territories (7.3 percentage points) and Yukon (7.1 percentage points).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A8.4.

Text alternative for Figure 50: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, by Inuit region

Figure 50: Percentage of dwellings in need of major repair, 2021, Inuit and non-Indigenous populations, by Inuit region

Nunatsiavut (Labrador)		Nunavik (Northern Quebec)		Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)		Nunavut		Outside Inuit Nunangat
Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous	Inuit	Non-Indigenous
28.4%	0.0%	23.7%	10.7%	30.8%	13.9%	31.7%	10.1%	10.5%	5.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• In 2021, the percentage of Inuit dwellings in need of major repair was significant both within and outside Inuit Nunangat. Inside Inuit Nunangat, the percentage of Inuit dwellings requiring major repairs was substantial across all regions, ranging from 23.7% in Nunavik to 31.7% in Nunavut.
• The gaps relative to non-Indigenous dwellings in need of major repairs were sizeable. The highest gap was found in Nunatsiavut where there were no non-Indigenous dwellings in need of repair, followed by Nunavut (21.6 percentage points), Inuvialuit Region (16.9 percentage points) and Nunavik (13.0 percentage points).
• Outside Inuit Nunangat, the percentage of Inuit dwellings in need of major repair exceeded that of non-Indigenous dwellings by 4.8 percentage points. While not as large as in Inuit Nunangat, this gap does mean that Inuit dwellings were nearly twice as likely as non-Indigenous dwellings to be in need of major repairs.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A8.5.

Children in foster care

The Census of Population is designed to enumerate private households. Therefore, with respect to children in foster care, the census counts only those who reside in a private home. Those living in institutions, group homes or other care arrangements are not included in census counts related to children in foster care and are therefore not reflected in the data presented in this report.

Indigenous children are far more likely than non-Indigenous children to be in foster care. Although Indigenous Peoples represent only 5.0% of the Canadian population, Indigenous children make up over half (52.0%) of the children in foster care (Figure 51). From 2016 to 2021, the number of Indigenous children in foster care was relatively flat, decreasing by only 90 children in 5 years (Table 21). For a full list of all data tables relevant to children in foster care, please see Appendix A, tables A9.1 to A9.4.

The regional breakdowns for Inuit are not presented as the small numbers make it difficult to interpret differences in the percentage of Inuit children in foster care across Inuit regions. It is notable that the percentage of Inuit children in foster care inside Inuit Nunangat (2.0%) is lower than the percentage outside Inuit Nunangat (8.0%). However, this pattern could be misleading as some Inuit children in foster care outside Inuit Nunangat may originate from families inside Inuit Nunangat.

Text alternative for Figure 51: Percentage of Indigenous and non-Indigenous children comprising the total population of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, Canada

Figure 51: Percentage of Indigenous and non-Indigenous children comprising the total population of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Other Indigenous	Non-Indigenous
7.6%	26.3%	9.2%	2.6%	5.8%	0.6%	48.0%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Indigenous children are over-represented in foster care. Of all children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 26.3% were Registered Indian children living off reserve, 9.2% were Non-Status Indian children, 7.6% were Registered Indian children living on reserve, 5.8% were Métis children and 2.6% were Inuit children.

Text alternative for Figure 52: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 52: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Registered Indians (total)	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
4.5%	2.3%	6.3%	3.0%	3.3%	1.2%	0.2%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Figure 52 includes a statistic for all Registered Indian children, in addition to the breakdown between those on and off reserve. In subsequent charts related to foster care, the breakdown is not included as it may be misleading, since Registered Indian children in foster care off reserve may come from families living on reserve.

• The percentage of Indigenous children aged 0 to 17 in foster care was significant. Registered Indians living off reserve (6.3%), Non-Status Indians (3.3%) and Inuit (3.0%) showed the highest percentage of children in foster care.
• Gaps relative to the non-Indigenous population were substantial, particularly for Registered Indian children living off reserve (6.1 percentage point difference).
• While the difference in percentage between Métis and non-Indigenous children in foster care appears smallest at 1.0 percentage points, Métis children remained six times more likely than non-Indigenous children to be in foster care.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A9.1.

Text alternative for Figure 53: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2011 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

Figure 53: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2011 to 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, Canada

	Registered Indians (total)	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis	Non-Indigenous
2011	5.0%	2.8%	2.7%	1.4%	0.3%
2016	4.5%	3.1%	2.4%	1.3%	0.3%
2021	4.5%	3.0%	3.3%	1.2%	0.2%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Registered Indian includes both those living on and off reserve since Registered Indian children in foster care off reserve may come from families living on reserve.

• Data on foster care were first captured in the 2011 National Household Survey, which was that year's equivalent to the long-form census, and then in the 2016 and 2021 census cycles.
• Between 2011 and 2016, the percentage of children in foster care decreased for the Registered Indian (0.5 percentage points) and Métis (0.2 percentage points) groups. By contrast, the percentages for Non-Status Indians and Inuit increased by 0.2 and 0.6 percentage points, respectively.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A9.2.

Text alternative for Figure 54: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 54: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, First Nations and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Registered Indians	Non-Status Indian	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador	2.1%	0.4%	0.5%
Prince Edward Island			0.1%
Nova Scotia	2.0%		0.3%
New Brunswick	2.2%	2.4%	0.5%
Quebec	3.7%	1.0%	0.5%
Ontario	3.1%	1.5%	0.1%
Manitoba	7.5%	11.2%	0.3%
Saskatchewan	3.0%	5.7%	0.1%
Alberta	5.5%	3.7%	0.1%
British Columbia	4.7%	3.1%	0.2%
Yukon	3.9%
Northwest Territories	2.0%	4.3%
Nunavut

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Registered Indians include both those living on and off reserve since Registered Indian children in foster care off reserve may come from families living on reserve.

• There were notable regional variations in the percentage of First Nations children (Registered Indians and Non-Status Indians) aged 0 to 17 in foster care.
• The percentage of Registered Indian children in foster care was highest in Manitoba (7.5%), followed by Alberta (5.5%) and British Columbia (4.7%).
• For Non-Status Indians, the percentage was also highest in Manitoba (11.2%), followed by Saskatchewan (5.7%) and the Northwest Territories (4.3%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A9.3.

Text alternative for Figure 55: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

Figure 55: Percentage of children aged 0 to 17 in foster care, 2021, Métis and non-Indigenous populations, by region

	Métis	Non-Indigenous
Newfoundland and Labrador		0.5%
Prince Edward Island		0.1%
Nova Scotia		0.3%
New Brunswick	1.1%	0.5%
Quebec	0.7%	0.5%
Ontario	0.5%	0.1%
Manitoba	2.6%	0.3%
Saskatchewan	1.2%	0.1%
Alberta	0.9%	0.1%
British Columbia	1.6%	0.2%
Yukon
Northwest Territories	1.5%
Nunavut

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• The percentage of Métis children in foster care differed markedly across regions, peaking in Manitoba at 2.6%.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A9.4.

Indigenous language knowledge

Indigenous languages have a very important role in Indigenous cultures and reflect the rich and distinct worldviews of the different Indigenous nations across the country. In 2021, there were over 70 Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. For more than 20 (28.6%) of those languages, 500 or fewer people reported speaking them as their mother tongue. In 2021, 243,155 individuals could conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language, 188,905 people reported having at least one Indigenous mother tongue and 182,925 reported speaking an Indigenous language at home on a regular basis. From 2016 to 2021, the number of individuals able to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language dropped by over 20,000 (Table 23). This may be due in part to the 63 incompletely enumerated First Nations communities for the 2021 Census. For a full list of all data tables relevant to Indigenous language knowledge, please see Appendix A, tables A10.1 to A10.8.

Knowledge of Indigenous languages is not compared to non-Indigenous languages in this report. Instead, the report examines trends in Indigenous language use over time and whether those trends reflect Indigenous Peoples' aspirations with respect to the preservation and practice of their ancestral languages.

Text alternative for Figure 56: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, Canada

Figure 56: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis
40.4%	11.0%	1.8%	58.5%	1.2%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• In 2021, knowledge of an Indigenous language, meaning the proportion of Indigenous people who can conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language, was highest among Inuit (58.5%) and Registered Indians living on reserve (40.4%), and lowest among Métis (1.2%) and Non-Status Indians (1.8%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.1.

Text alternative for Figure 57: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2001 to 2021, Canada

Figure 57: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2001 to 2021, Canada

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian	Inuit	Métis
2001	49.5%	17.8%	5.3%	72.0%	5.0%
2006	50.8%	16.3%	3.2%	70.9%	3.3%
2011	44.6%	12.3%	2.2%	64.0%	2.4%
2016	44.8%	11.7%	1.9%	64.8%	1.6%
2021	40.4%	11.0%	1.8%	58.5%	1.2%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Indigenous language knowledge has progressively declined over time. Between 2001 and 2021, the proportion of Indigenous respondents self-reporting an ability to converse in an Indigenous language decreased the most among Inuit (13.5 percentage points) and Registered Indians on reserve (9.1 percentage points).
• While less dramatic in scale, the decline in Indigenous language knowledge was nonetheless considerable for Registered Indians living off reserve at 6.8 percentage points, Non-Status Indians at 3.5 percentage points and Métis at 3.8 percentage points.
• It is possible that the declines noted in 2021 were driven in part by the undercounting of First Nations reserves. Given the 63 First Nations communities (identified as Indian reserves and Indian settlements) that were incompletely enumerated in 2021 compared to 14 in 2016, Statistics Canada has urged caution when comparing the 2021 Census data to those of previous census cycles, particularly for variables that are closely tied to reserves such as Indigenous language knowledge.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.2.

Text alternative for Figure 58: Percentage of First Nations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by region

Figure 58: Percentage of First Nations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by region

	Registered Indian on reserve	Registered Indian off reserve	Non-Status Indian
Newfoundland and Labrador	62.0%	2.0%	0.4%
Prince Edward Island	15.2%	1.9%	2.2%
Nova Scotia	49.9%	2.1%	1.1%
New Brunswick	34.7%	2.9%	0.9%
Quebec	78.5%	11.5%	1.2%
Ontario	33.8%	3.2%	1.2%
Manitoba	38.9%	5.7%	6.3%
Saskatchewan	37.6%	10.5%	6.4%
Alberta	40.9%	5.9%	2.8%
British Columbia	17.6%	2.7%	1.3%
Yukon		8.1%	1.4%
Northwest Territories	30.8%	26.5%	10.7%
Nunavut		80.4%	31.8%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Among First Nations, the ability to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language varied considerably across regions. Rates among Registered Indians living on reserve ranged from as low as 15.2% in Prince Edward Island to as high as 78.5% in Quebec.
• For Registered Indians living off reserve, this percentage ranged from 1.9% in Prince Edward Island to 26.5 in the Northwest Territories and 80.4 in Nunavut.
• Indigenous language knowledge among Non-Status Indians was strongest in Nunavut (31.8%) and the Northwest Territories (10.7%), and weakest among those in Newfoundland and Labrador (0.4%) and New Brunswick (0.9%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.3.

Text alternative for Figure 59: Percentage of Métis with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by region

Figure 59: Percentage of Métis with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by region

	Métis
Newfoundland and Labrador	0.2%
Prince Edward Island
Nova Scotia	0.2%
New Brunswick	0.1%
Quebec	0.3%
Ontario	0.4%
Manitoba	0.7%
Saskatchewan	4.5%
Alberta	1.9%
British Columbia	0.7%
Yukon	1.3%
Northwest Territories	7.0%
Nunavut	9.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Indigenous language knowledge varied for Métis across Canada.
• In 2021, the highest rates were observed among the large Métis populations in Saskatchewan (4.5%) and Alberta (1.9%).
• While the Northwest Territories and Nunavut displayed the highest rates of self-reported ability to converse in an Indigenous language, it is worth emphasizing, yet again, that Métis populations in these regions were small; approximately 110 Métis resided in Nunavut, and 2,495 in the Northwest Territories.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.4.

Text alternative for Figure 60: Percentage of Inuit with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by region

Figure 60: Percentage of Inuit with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by region

	Inuit
Nunatsiavut (Labrador)	18.2%
Nunavik (Northern Quebec)	98.8%
Inuvialuit Region (Northwest Territories and Yukon)	15.8%
Nunavut	81.2%
Outside Nunangat	11.7%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• There are striking variations in Indigenous language knowledge across the four regions of Inuit Nunangat.
• In 2021, the vast majority of Inuit in Nunavik (98.8%) and Nunavut (81.2%) were able to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language, compared to less than one-quarter of Inuit in the regions of Nunatsiavut (18.2%) and Inuvialuit (15.8%).
• Among Inuit living outside Inuit Nunangat, knowledge of an Indigenous language was comparatively lower at 11.7%.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.5.

Text alternative for Figure 61: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by gender, Canada

Figure 61: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, by gender, Canada

	Men+ Percentage	Women+ Percentage
Registered Indian on reserve	39.9%	40.9%
Registered Indian off reserve	10.1%	11.8%
Non-Status Indian	1.8%	1.8%
Inuit	58.0%	59.0%
Métis	1.1%	1.3%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

Note: Given that the non-binary population is small, Statistics Canada produced a two-category gender variable that was applied to prevent disclosure of identifiable data for lower levels of geography when necessary. Consequently, information will be disseminated using the following categories: Men+, Women+. Individuals in the "non-binary persons" category are distributed in the other two gender categories and are denoted by the "+" symbol.

• The likelihood of knowing an Indigenous language was similar for men+ and women+ across all Indigenous populations.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.6

Text alternative for Figure 62: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, aged 0 to 19 and aged 20+, Canada

Figure 62: Percentage of Indigenous populations with knowledge of an Indigenous language, 2021, aged 0 to 19 and aged 20+, Canada

Registered Indian on reserve		Registered Indian off reserve		Non-Status Indian		Inuit		Métis
0 to 19	20+	0 to 19	20+	0 to 19	20+	0 to 19	20+	0 to 19	20+
29.7%	47.2%	7.9%	12.4%	2.2%	1.6%	58.2%	58.7%	0.6%	1.5%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Among Registered Indians living on reserve, those aged 0 to 19 (29.7%) were markedly less likely than their older counterparts (47.2%) to be able to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language.
• A similar pattern was apparent among Registered Indians living off reserve, with 7.9% of those aged 0 to 19 able to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language, compared to 12.4% of those aged 20+.
• Inuit aged 0 to 19 (58.2%) and aged 20+ (58.7%) showed similar degrees of language knowledge.
• Among Métis aged 0 to 19, the ability to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language was below (0.6%) that of those aged 20+ (1.5%).
• By contrast, the percentage of Non-Status Indians able to conduct a conversation in an Indigenous language was slightly higher among individuals aged 0–19 (2.2%) than among those aged 20+ (1.6%).
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A10.7.

Justice – Incarceration

Disproportionate levels of incarceration can be a strong indicator that a holistic examination is needed of both crime and the institutional responses to it. The Adult Correctional Services Survey collects annual data on the delivery of adult correctional services from both the provincial/territorial and federal correctional systems. Reporting on custody admissions is limited to a pan-Indigenous identifier. In 2021, 46,633 Indigenous people were admitted to remand, custody or community sentence. From 2016 to 2021, the total number of Indigenous adult admissions decreased considerably from 74,823 to 46,633, a difference of 28,190 people (Table 24). For a full list of all data tables relevant to incarceration, please see Appendix A, tables A11.1 to A11.2.

Text alternative for Figure 63: Custody admissions associated with Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in 2021 to 2022 as a percentage of their respective 2021 Census populations, Canada

Figure 63: Custody admissions associated with Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in 2021 to 2022 as a percentage of their respective 2021 Census populations, Canada

	Percentage
Indigenous	2.6%
Non-Indigenous	0.3%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population and 2021 to 2022 Adult Correctional Services Survey.

• Figure 64 provides a rough estimate of the differences in incarceration rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations in 2020 to 2021. Specifically, it presents the number of custody admissions associated with Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations in 2020 to 2021 as a percentage of their respective 2021 Census populations.
• Since a single person can have more than one custody admission in a year, this percentage does not represent a true rate.
• It does signal that custody admissions were far more common among Indigenous people than non-Indigenous people.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A11.1.

Text alternative for Figure 64: Percentage of custody admissions of individuals with Indigenous and non-Indigenous identity, 2016 to 2017 to 2020 to 2021, Canada

Figure 64: Percentage of custody admissions of individuals with Indigenous and non-Indigenous identity, 2016 to 2017 to 2020 to 2021, Canada

	2016 to 2017	2017 to 2018	2018 to 2019	2019 to 2020	2020 to 2021	2021 to 2022
Indigenous	29.9%	30.3%	30.6%	29.9%	31.4%	31.2%
Non-Indigenous	70.1%	69.7%	69.4%	70.1%	68.6%	68.8%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2016 to 2017 to 2021 to 2022 Adult Correctional Services Survey.

• According to the 2021 Census, Indigenous people made up 5.0% of the population of Canada that year. In 2020 to 2021, however, the Adult Correctional Services Survey determined that Indigenous people were involved in 31.2% of custody admissions.
• The percentage of Indigenous adults who entered a correctional facility for remand or who were sentenced to custody or a community supervision program increased slightly from 29.9% in 2016 to 31.2% in 2021.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Table A11.2.

A focus on urban settings

According to the 2021 Census, about 48.0% of Registered Indians, 75.0% of Non-Status Indians, 50.7% of Inuit, and 71.1% of Métis live in urban areas. Analyses of these data revealed that gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations living in urban settings are generally similar to those that exist between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations overall. Employment rates provide a useful illustration.

Text alternative for Figure 65: Comparison of total and urban employment rates, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Figure 65: Comparison of total and urban employment rates, 2021, Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, aged 25 to 64, Canada

Registered Indian off reserve		Non-Status Indian		Inuit		Métis		Non-Indigenous
Urban	Total	Urban	Total	Urban	Total	Urban	Total	Urban	Total
58.1%	58.7%	65.2%	64.8%	59.1%	55.2%	69.5%	69.1%	74.3%	74.1%

Source: Indigenous Services Canada. Custom Tabulations, 2021 Census of Population.

• Urban employment rates were almost identical to total employment rates both in the overall trends and relative to each other.
• In urban settings, the highest employment rate was among Métis (69.5%) and the lowest among Registered Indians living off reserve (58.1%).
• Urban employment rates and corresponding gaps relative to the non-Indigenous population were relatively stable for Registered Indians off reserve, Non-Status Indians and Métis when compared to overall employment trends and disparities (both in urban settings and throughout Canada).
• Among Inuit, the urban employment rate was higher than the total employment rate (59.1% compared to 55.2%).
• Accordingly, the gap in employment rate among Inuit living in urban areas relative to their non-Indigenous counterparts compared to the gap among Inuit in total was slightly smaller, at 20.5 percentage points.
• The full dataset for this figure is available in Appendix A – Tables 12.1 and 12.2.

Median individual income

Low-income measure after tax

Employment rate